Deductive Reasoning, Chapter 12

Summary:

Deductive reasoning is based on logic. It is arriving at a conclusion from one or more claims, also known as premises. Argument, reasoning, syllogism, premise, validy and sounded all interplay with each other to arrive at a conclusion. Inductive and deductive reasoning interweave with each other in and out of the argument in order to come up with a conclusion. Although premises are required being that they are claims for reasoning, syllogism is the main structure; it plays with word equations to reach true and valid conclusions.

Reflection:

Although I was able to follow this chapter, I was also really confused. I get where it's going with the idea, but it's a lot of twists and turns to take in. I think it can all be said a little simpler? That's just my own opinion. It was interesting though.

Inductive Reasoning, Chapter 11

Summary:

Inductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from evidence. You arrive at the conclusion based on the information you are given. It it not a guess, or trial and error, it is an exact conclusion reached from information at hand. The methods used are sensory observation, enumeration, analogical reasoning, pattern recognition, casual reasoning, and statistical reasoning. Inductive reasoning can also contain many fallacies which we need to pay close attention to as a critical thinker. These fallacies include: hasty generalizations, either-or fallacy, questionable statistic, inconsistencies and contradictions, loaded questions, false analogy, false cause, and slippery slope. These are all different type of strategies that one may use in an argument to pursuade you into believing it is true.

Reflection:

I found this chapter very informative. It is true that we use inductive reasoning in our everyday encounters to draw conclusions. I am however, questioning the difference between this and inferences. I know an inference is more of a guess then a reasoning, but it is very similar, especially since they both are based on some type of probability. Reading about the fallacies mentioned in this chapter opened my eyes to a lot. I realize that I, myself, am prone to falling for these fallacies when used on me. I now will keep these in mind when critically thinking about a discussion or argument, so I do not get easily swayed in one direction.

Fallacies, Chapter 10

Summary:

This chapter highlights 20 different types of fallacies, which are manipulative statements in arguments to make them seem soundly reasoned. Identifying fallacies helps us learn more about the rules for good reasoning, to avoid using them ourselves, and to not be influenced by arguments that contain them. They can manipulate through language, using word ambiguity, misleading euphemism, or prejudicial language. The use of word ambiguity leaving a key word undefined so that the reader is left to assume the meaning of it, not fully understanding the point. Misleading euphemism is creating a word that make a less acceptable idea seem unrecognizable. Prejudicial language works with strong biased words. Manipulation of emotions is another type of fallacy, working with fear, pity, false authority, bandwagon, and prejudice to persuade ones feelings in a certain direction. Another form of fallacies is the manipulation through distraction such as red herring, diverting attention to other issues; pointing to another wrong; and straw man.

Reflection:

It was interesting to learn about fallacies. It was something I have never paid any attention to before now. It is interesting how much we can be influenced by a statement or manipulated through our emotions. I think I am more manipulated through distraction... it is easier to distract me and divert my attention elsewhere then to alter my emotions towards something. I am not easily influenced for the fact that I know everyone has their own opinions which can be different or similar to my own. It is funny to see how this really applies to everyday life and makes me realize how much we all do it. I will definitely play closer attention to this now when I am faced with it in real life!

Argument, Chapter 9

Summary:

This chapter demonstrates good and poor arguments, and the skills of argument building, analysis and evaluation. An argument must be read/heard without criticism or bias in order to comprehend the material accurately, since they are meant to persuade. Five questions can help you analyze an argument: what is the source?; what is the issue of controversy?; is it an argument or a report?; how is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusion?; and what are the strengths and weaknesses? First, you should identify the reasons, and lastly define the conclusion. An argument can leave out important information, a critical thinker looks for what is missing, such as definitions, reasons and conclusions, and facts or information. We should also pay attention to the information provided, searching for discrepancies, contradictions, incongruities, and inconsistencies in order to make sure that what we are reading/hearing is true and concise.

Reflection:

I felt this was a very informative chapter. It broke down arguments and how to distinguish a strong one from a poor one. Defined basis of arguments and reminded the reader to search for missing information that could have been purposely left out to help persuade its point, or just missed which can make it invalid or less persuading. Also reminded you to look a little deeper into the information provided to determine if its true and consistent. I really liked this chapter and will keep this information in mind when dealing with this type of situation.

Viewpoints - Chapter 8

Summary:

This chapter described viewpoints. Being able to detach from your own view point is a skill that helps us communicate better and gain new perspectives. They are not to be confused for reality. There are many types of viewpoints such as: socioeconomic, politial, ethnic, national, religious, etc. They can be unconscious, such as religiocentrism, which is the belief that your religion is the only way. They can also be conscious as an opinion, or a preference to one side of a spectrum, as the political one. Hidden view points can be found in news framing... the way the editor lays out his work to downplay or exaggerate certain events to show as he wants them. As Jay Davis states, "Even the most evenhanded reporter is subject to personal bias." (TFY, pg228)

Reflection:

This chapter didn't really spark my interest much, in fact, it was a pretty boring read. I feel like I wasted my time, reading something that to me is common sense. I can, however say that I learned the "left and right" spectrum of political view points, I never knew which side was democrat n which was republican.

Study/Writing/Discussion Questions

Chapter 1, Pg 20
1. Why did Agassiz keep saying "Look at your fish!"? What was he trying to teach Scudder?
- He meant to look at it with a different angle. Instead of breaking down the anatomy and physiology, look at it as a whole and how they come together to make up the fish. Look and observe, dont just state the obvious.

2. How would you describe the stages in Scudder's process of looking?
- Scudder kept trying to observe the fish through another's eyes wich is frustrating because as stated previously in the book "it is more convenient to assume that reality is similar to our preconceived ideas than to freshly observe what we have before our eyes." The harder he tried, the more he doubted himself. Once he got it, it all became apparent.

3. How did Scudder change personally in the course of his "trial"?
- Figuring out this new way of observation made him more confident and he applies this to his work.

4. Explain why you think Agassiz's method of teaching was either effective or wasteful.
- Obviously effective because Scudder applied it to his new ways and learned it on his own, it wasn't handed to him.


Chapter 1, Pg 43
1. How do observation skills protect the writer in this situation?
- The fact that he observes that the rattlesnakes are attracted to the mice in his trailor. Also, the fact that he was able to identify that it was indeed a rattlesnake, not a harmless one, and under the door step before he walked right into it.

2. How does he combine his knowledge of animals together with his observation skills to anticipate future problems?
- He is aware that if he kills this snake, there are more deadly snakes that may come and replace him... which would be a worse situation.

3. How does he use his observation and imagination together in order to find an unusual solution to his problem?
- When he notices a gopher snake, he brings it home to to make it his pet, serving many purposes; to eat the mice, and fight off the rattlers since they are enemies of each other. He grew to like the company; he referred to it as a cat curled up in the warm corner, and he would take it around with him curled up in his shirt, he says they are "compatible".

4. Whey do you suppose he does not consider poisoning and trapping the mice or shooting the rattlesnakes one by one?
- He has a duty as a park ranger to protect all living things, no exceptions, and referres to himself as a humanist, who would rather kill a man then an animal. He would rather let nature take its course and have the predator take care of their prey.

5. What values does he hold-and what aversions does he lack-that would enable him to enjoy this solution?
- His values are that he has a love for life and does not want to take it into his own hands but simply let the circle of life take place by allowing the snakes to take care of his problem for him. What he lacks is the power to get it done without feelings attached, he grew close with his predator instead of just having it there to do its job.


Chapter 2, Pg 71
1. Why do you think Malcom X could be so confident and articulate as a hustler, yet have so much difficulty writing "simple English"?
- Being a hustler, does not always require you to possess writing skills, it demands more of a sales attitude. You need to have more people smarts then book smarts, having a way with the words you know, is different then having a broad vocabulary, some people can make it work.

2. What do you think of his practice of copying out every word in a dictionary?
- I think it was a great idea! What works for some might not work for others, but this definitely worked for him. Actually writing it out and reviewing it over and over, stored the information in his long-term memory and now he has a huge vocabulary.

3. Why did Malcom X find it so empowering to learn new words?
- He was now able to fully understand all the books that he previously couldn't. He had no clue what they were saying prior to his education from the dictionary.

4. What motivated him to read in his cell in semidarkness late through the night?
- He couldn't get enough reading. He preferred to read in his room and it seemed that everytime it was "lights out" he was in the middle of a good reading so he refused to put the book down and he read in the semidarkness through the night. He valued reading and educating himself over sleep.

5. Why do you think Malcom X wanted others to hear this story?
- He wanted the world to know how he turned his street ways and imprisonment into literacy and power. He wanted it known how he educated himself and did not give up. Basically sending the message "if I can do it, so can you".


Chapter 8, Pg 228
1. According to the author, what strategies are used on television to provide the illusion of objectivity?
- The author says that watching network news reports you will conclude that all issues have only two sides. Television uses the strategy of "presenting both sides" to provide the illusion of objectivity.

2. How and why do these strategies center on familiar dichotomies?
- They center on familiar dichotomies because they give the illusion that everything is in either black-and-white or yes-and-no terms. They illiminate possibility of gray or maybe. The fact that there are other sides, opinions or beliefs.

3. What support does the author give for his claim that maintaining true impartiality is impossible?
- The author supports his claim by saying that this view of objectivity means keeping one's own feelings separate from the story, but yet even the most evenhanded reporter is subject to personal bias.

4. Why does he say that the search for alternative viewpoints is crucial?
- He says this because the media dualism can leave the impression that it represents both sides to all issues, therefore, leaving no room for any other. It is crucial to find other viewpoints or else we can be sucked into believing these are the only ones.

5. List what he says to watch for in media news.
-Creativity
-Journalists/Media that stretch to find unusual perspectives
-Foreign correspondent who takes the trouble to interview refugees when another power invades their country.
-Broadcaster who explores the history of the debate over rights (pointing out how todays opinions echo historical questions)
-Writer whose editorial on nuclear energy in Tennessee includes an interview with an elderly Appalachian trout fisherman who remembers what the fish were like before the power plant was built.
-The stories that go the extra mile are worth watching for.

Assumptions

Chapter 5
Summary: Chapter 5 explained assumptions. We make assumptions daily as a bridge to draw conclusions in life, to help us make the best decisions we can. Some assumptions are conscious and do certain things based on what we assume is the best choice. They help us in taking risks or stragegize outcomes. However, many assumptions are unconscious on we do not even realize that we are drawing conclusions about a situation as we are doing it. An unconscious assumption is not even recognized until we discover that our way of thinking was not reality. All the while, whether assumptions are concious or unconscious, they are a part of survival, in helping us determine right from wrong, to the best of our ability. There are also warranted and unwarranted assumptions. A warranted assumption would be following protocol, such as standards, codes, customs and agreements; an unwarranted assumption would be opposing this. Most of our assumptions come from our own values, beliefs we were raised on from our culture. These are not true for everyone, being that every culture has its own views on life. Many are hidden, however, in propaganda and argument. A debator or a commercial can use assumptions to persuade us to believe its true. Assumptions are not always the truth, they are simply bridges we use to draw conclusions.
Reflection: Up until reading this chapter, I never realized how often we make assumptions about things. I pretty much used to term so freely that I thought I had control over my use of it. Its true that many of our assumptions, what I had considered natural instincts, are based on our own values, what we were taught was "right". Going forward, I will now be more aware of my own assumptions when I am drawing conclusions about things... from believing fact from fiction, to deciding what color eye shaddow looks good with my outfit!

Inference (Due 2/16)

TFY CHAPTER 4

Summary: Inferences are conclusions we derive from past experiences. They in no way are facts, simply just our interpretations about something. They can lead us to great knowledge, yet if not understood correctly, can lead us to confusion. Inferences can help us make a generalization about an observation. Generalizing the certainty of a situation is based on recurrance, order, relationship and evidence to believe it to be true.

Reflection: I completely agree with everything I have read in this chapter. I believe inferences are strictly subjective. Based on ones culture, values or upbringing, they may come up with different inferences then someone who sees life in a completely different way. If we arrive at a conclusion about something, it is based on association, and that can very from person to person.

FACTS (Due 2/2)

Chapter 3

Summary: This chapter was an overview on facts, on the importance and determination of them. What we all refer to as a fact, may indeed one day change. It can be altered into a new one based on new findings. There are four standards to determine a fact... it's plausibility (does it have credibility), reliability (is it dependable), probability (is there constant repetition to prove the outcome) and verifyability (can it be confirmed). Since facts are not always concrete, these are the standards that are used to define and identify a fact. Although it was once thought that objective feelings were the only way to distinguish a fact and subjective feelings should be set aside to see the truth... it is now found that there are circumstances where they actually come into play.

Reflection: I completely understand what this book is saying about this topic, but it still has not won me over. I strongly believe that a fact is only a fact, if it leaves no room for argument. That whatever I see as a fact, so will you and anyone else that is faced with the same exact situation. I dont think it should matter on your feelings, subjective or objective... or matter on probability and so forth... I believe it should be concrete. That's my opinion!

Ch2 - Word Precision

Summary:
Chapter 2 was about word precision: choice of words, connotations and definitions. Words are our tools to communicate how we feel, think, etc. They illustrate for us our thoughts and perception of something. Therefore, the choice of words we use are very crucial in order to describe what we are trying to comprehend or explain. For example, we can tell someone that a pillow is soft, but to someone that has never felt or seen that pillow, how can they decipher from soft as a cotton ball, or soft as a rabbits fur. The better choice of word, the more descriptive you can get. The bigger your vocabulary is, the more you can see.

Words are also linked with emotions and feelings we associate with them from our own experiences which are called connotations. They are the sadness we associate with the word death, the joy we think of with word newborn, and the sourness we recall with the word lemon. Connotations can be used to manipulate other people's evaluation of a certain word as well.

In order to choose the correct use of word, you must fully understand that word's meaning, or definition. There are many different type of definitions from scientific definitions which are specific and technical, to stipulative definitions which are based on an individual or group agreements. If ever faced with an unfamiliar word, is it beneficial to you to fully understand the use or meaning of it. Thus, you will have a broader vocabulary and a better selection of words, leading you to a more advanced level of reading and comprehension.

Reflection:

This chapter touched on my own struggles. I constantly feel frustration with my vocabulary when I'm trying to describe or define something. I know the choice of words I am using, just aren't the exact ones I would like to use. I don't think that it's due to inadequate education, it's more laziness then anything. I don't take the time to expand my knowledge with language sometimes... I am more the type of person that takes the easy way out by using a more general term or in reading, skipping over the word and not checking on the meaning of it. I notice it more when my 3rd or 4th grader ask me what certain, simple words mean, and I draw a blank, I don't know what to tell them so I have them look it up in the dictionary. Therefore, I do strongly agree with the importance of word precision and how it plays a roll in our everyday life, not just in reading and writing.

Where Do I Stand? (Due 1/26)

Feet: From my point of view, critical thinking is the ability to see beyond the obvious and see a deeper meaning of a situation. To fully understand what is being read/heard.

Stomach: What upsets me is that my understanding may be different from anothers or not accurate. Everyone comprehands things in different ways. I fear the inability to succeed if I fail to understand the material correctly. I am more comfortable with learning in black and white.

Heart: What I love is that it is so diverse. I love to see how different ones views and interpretation are from anothers. We can learn from one another.

Hands: I feel critical thinking is a valuable tool to reading and comprehension. It allows us to analyze a situation/reading and reflect on our understanding of it. I feel that there is no definite right or wrong answer, everyone has different values and beliefs and may interpret things in different ways.

Ears: I honestly haven't heard anything about critical thinking.

Eyes: I see critical thinking as a conversation piece to discuss peoples points of view.

Brain: What I think is it's an artistic way to express your views and understanding.